Knowledge Management Models And Frameworks Commerce Essay

friendship instruction Models And Frameworks Commerce EssayThe target of this radical is to critically round off the various acquaintance heed bewilders and frameworks. The review found that various intimacy centering molds and frameworks varies in perspectives ranging from the basic conjecture of the articulation and transfer of mum and de noneative acquaintance to the more labyrinthian and complicated assumption that experience is gifted neat and it is mechanistic in perspective as well as an important asset that has to be managed efficiently for firms success. In this paper, familiarity vigilance theoretical accounts ar divided into terzetto categories cognition category clay sculptures, intellectual capital standards, and well-disposedly constructed good examples. Besides, two experience trouble frameworks allow be discussed in this paper. Finally, a KM standard and framework is tentatively suggested to act as a utilisationful perish for bare ly look into and shapingal covering.Introduction nary(prenominal)adays, the world is fully experiencing an era, videlicet companionship age or the sockledge economy. In familiarity economy, association is the all-important(a) commodity due to the speedyly technological advancement. The technological innovations argon eliminating the gap between competing companies and the collective noesis of the employees become the key operator in producing innovative and militant products or services (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). Since previously managers did non encourage diffusion and sacramental manduction of fellowship among employees, changing in instruction ability is required for managing the fellowship effectively. The companionship-driven activities in faces and of the broader economic and amicable life moderate to the vigilance of companionship become very important (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). In general, this managerial activity has been known as noesis Management (KM).Previous research on intimacy forethought indicates the existence of various definitions of association wariness. harmonise to no.aka and Takeuchi (1995), fellowship steering is the capability of a company to make refreshed knowledge, disseminate it byout the presidential term and embody it in products, services, and systems. Duffy (1999) defines knowledge management as the identification, growth and effective application of an organisations critical knowledge. familiarity management has been defined in a nonher term, which is an organized and explicit physical process to generate, renew, and concord knowledge to maximize an brass instruments knowledge-related effectiveness and returns from its knowledge assets (Wiig, 1997). Alavi and Leidner (1999) define knowledge management as a systemic and organisationally specified process for acquiring, organizing, and communication both tacit and explicit knowledge of employees so that other employees whitethorn make aim of it to be more effective and productive in their work. Besides, ODell et al., (1998) define knowledge management as a conscious strategy of getting the in effect(p) champaign knowledge to the right people at the right time and helping people packet and put knowledge into carry through in ways that strive to improve organisational performance. For instance, Beckman (1999) define knowledge management as the formalization of and access to experience, knowledge and expertise that create new capabilities, enable superior performance, encourage innovation and enhance guest esteem. In general, KM is the process of creating, storing, distributing, and applying knowledge.By re showing the signifi coffin nailce of knowledge management and the complexity of its nature, it is timely to try to understand the latest theories underlying knowledge and knowledge management. Hence, this paper will critically study the latest ensamples and frameworks of knowledge management and discuss on the assumptions and views of each model and framework. The aim of this paper is to examine the current understanding of the theory and practice of the emerging field of knowledge management by critically evaluating be knowledge management models and frameworks. Therefore, employers or practitioners in physical compositions can understand their concepts and improved attackes can be develop and applied to organization and to those who exact to work and implement knowledge management.This paper will begin by presenting the aims and physical objects and followed with a short intervention on the types of knowledge. This is followed with the discussion on some of the existing knowledge management models and frameworks.Types of KnowledgeIn todays competitive business environment, only the knowledge of an organization can lead the basis for organizational renewal and sustainable competitive advantages. Organizational knowledge can be classified into two typical types of knowl edge explicit and tacit. According to Polanyi (1967), explicit knowledge is the knowledge which is intimately to formalize, transfer, and store documented, articulated into formal language, formally expressible and easily to enunciate tacit knowledge is pertaining to ideas, feelings, and individual experience, which is more complicated and difficult to share with each others.Explicit knowledge is the fact and can be codified and transmitted in a systematic and formal language. It is usually data, which is innate to an organization and can be easily self-contained. Tacit knowledge is the person-to-person experiences, context-specific knowledge that is difficult to formalize record or articulate. It actually resides in the heads of the people, behavior and perception (Frid, 2000). Examples are intuitions, hunches, insights, beliefs and values. Both tacit and explicit knowledge are needed for an organization to achieve greater performance (Sanchez et. al. 1996).Knowledge Manageme nt Models and FrameworksKnowledge Category ModelsThese types of model categorize knowledge into distinguishable elements. One of the most renowned KM models fits into this category, the Knowledge Spiral model by Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995). This model presents a high level conceptual federal agency of the knowledge dimensions, namely tacit and explicit knowledge. The model makes a take of assumptions, namely1. Tacit knowledge can be transferred through a process of socialization ( every(prenominal)day comradeship) to become the tacit knowledge of others jacket crown unexpended hand quarter-circle2. Tacit knowledge can become explicit knowledge through a process of externalization (formalizing a body of knowledge) top right quadrant3. Explicit knowledge can be transferred into tacit knowledge in others through a process of internalization (translating theories into practice) fathom left quadrant4. Explicit knowledge can be transferred to explicit knowledge in others through a process of combination (combining existing theories) -bottom right quadrant.One criticism of the model is that knowledge transfer in organizations is much more complicated and convoluted than this dewy-eyed matrix suggests. The model also assumes an integration of tacit and explicit knowledge often this is not the case. This model is shown in recruit no. 1 beneath.A simple but more elaborate version of Nonakas model is shown in pick up no. 2 (Hedlund and Nonaka, 1993). This model assumes there are four diametrical levels of carriers, or agents, of knowledge in organizations, namely the individual, the group, the organization and the inter-organizational domain (customers, suppliers, competitors, etc.). The preceding(prenominal) model is helpful by relating the carriers to the types of knowledge it remains problematic in that it assumes the carriers, like the knowledge, can be simply separated.Another example of a knowledge category model is that of Boisot, (1998), as shown i n figure no. 3. Boisots model considers knowledge as codified or uncodified, delicate or undiffused, inside an organization. Boisot uses the term codified to refer to knowledge that can be promptly prepared for transmission purposes (e.g. financial data). The term uncodified refers to knowledge that cannot be easily prepared for transmission purposes (e.g. experience). The term diffused refers to knowledge that is readily shared while undiffused refers to knowledge that is not readily shared.The model presents the following characteristics1. Knowledge categorized as both codified and undiffused is referred to as correctitude knowledge. In this case, knowledge is prepared for transmission but is deliberately restricted to a selectively small population, on a need to know basis (e.g. projected profits, share price issues) top left quadrant2. Knowledge that is relatively uncodified and undiffused is referred to as own(prenominal) knowledge (e.g. perceptions, insights, experiences ) bottom left quadrantknowledge that is both codified and diffused is referred to as ordinary knowledge (e.g. journals, books, libraries) top right quadrantKnowledge which is relatively diffused but also uncodified is labeled common sense bottom right quadrant. Boisot, (1998) considers such knowledge as be built up slowly by a process of socialization, harboring customs and intuition.There are a few(prenominal) similarities between Nonakas model and Boisots model. For example, Nonakas categorization of explicit and tacit knowledge has a degree of correspondence with Boisots annexe to codified and uncodified knowledge. The horizontal dimension relates to the mobilize or diffusion of knowledge across the organization in both models. However, Boisots model experiences the same limitations as Nonakas model in that codified and uncodified are but two discrete categories of knowledge. In addition, the idea of diffused knowledge is rather general and it is not clear if it allows i ncorporating knowledge at heart the organization, as well as disseminating it.Figure No. 3-Knowledge Category Model (Boisot, 1998) understanding Capital ModelsManagement gurus such as Drucker (1993) and Brooking (1997) and practitioner icons such as Edvinsson, (1997) elucidated the notion of Intellectual Capital (IC). Knowledge and capital guide been connect together for many years. Knowledge is being capitalized as a resourcefulness comparable to land or oil. However, we also need to focus on the intangible elements which knowledge contains such as employee skills, experiences, patients, copyrights, brands, licensing opportunities, research and maturement, innovative use of assets such as databases, etc. (Quintas et al, 1997). As these type of elements are not normally recorded on the traditional organizational balance tacking they are referred to Intellectual Assets hence the term Intellectual Capital.KM is actively concerned with the strategic outlook and ope keen-witted ta ctics required for managing piece centered, intellectual assets (Brooking, 1997). According to Peters (1992), KM can affect intellectual capital or as recognizing or redis leading assets that the organization are not development to full potential, ultimately employees. As these approaches imply that the key force fields of KM are the management of IC it is worth reviewing a typical IC model. The model, shown below in figure no. 5, is the Intellectual Capital model from Skandia insurance policy which is adopted from Chase (1997), and Roos and Roos (1997). According to Edvinsson and Malone, (1997) intellectual capital concsists the applied experience, organizational technology, customer relationships and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive advantage in the market.One problem that can be associated with this model is the adoption of a scientific approach to knowledge. This is evident through the classification of knowledge as a commodity linking it to organi zation capital. This view of intellectual capital ignores the political and social aspects of KM. KM can be decomposed into objective elements rather than being socio-political phenomena from the view of intellectual capital. This is similar to the Nonaka and Takeuchi, (1995) approach.As befits a new area of inquiry, much analytical work is focused on categorizing, mapping and touchstone of knowledge types and processes. Although this is helpful, the epistemological basis of the field cannot be ignored (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999). Hence, we need to embrace socially constructed models of KM.Figure No. 4-Intellectual Capital Model of KM (Chase, 1997)Socially Constructed ModelsThis group of models assumes a wide definition of knowledge viewing it as being intrinsically linked within the social and learning processes of the organization. KM is concerned with the construction, pick up, interpretation, pattern, dissemination and use of knowledge. These components are represented in Dem erests (1997) Knowledge Management model. The model is developed from the original work of Clark and Staunton, (1989) and Nonaka and Takeuchi, (1995). It can be compared to that of Jordan and Jones, (1997) who speak of knowledge acquisition, problem solving, dissemination, ownership and storage and that of Kruizinga et al. (1997) who include knowledge policy, infrastructure and culture.Firstly, the model emphasizes the construction of knowledge within the organization. The model assumes that constructed knowledge is then embodied. Next the embodied knowledge is disseminated throughout the organization. in conclusion the knowledge is used to gain economic value with regard to organizational outputs. The black arrows in figure no. 5 show the radical flow direction while the white arrows show the more algorithmic flows.Figure No. 5 -Knowledge Management Model Demerest, (1997)Demerests model is engaging in that it does not assume any given definition of knowledge but rather invites a more holistic approach to knowledge construction. However, it does imply a simplistic procession approach to the flow of knowledge transfer, while in reality this may be extremely rapid and circulatory.To overcome this gap a slightly modified version of Demerests model has been developed, figure no. 6. Firstly the model emphasizes the construction of knowledge within an organization where either a scientific or social range may be adopted. The scientific view of knowledge takes a knowledge is truth view (Morgan, 1986). This view considers that knowledge is a body of facts and rational laws thus promoting a non-personal view of knowledge, skills and tasks (Lave and Wenger, 1991). On the other hand the social view of knowledge is concerned with the social and learning processes within an organization. However, this approach assumes that knowledge construction is inequality, conflict, domination, subordination and manipulation regularises as well as more traditional behavioral que stions associated with efficiency and motivation (Alvesson and Wilmott, 1996). Thus social knowledge construction is a dynamic process of contextuality rather than the engrossment of a body of facts. In the McAdam and McCreedys (1999) model depicted in figure no. 6, knowledge construction is not limited to scientific inputs through explicit programmes but includes a process of social interaction.The implications of this broader concept of knowledge construction must be reflected in the embodiment/dissemination of knowledge as part of the organizations KM approach. There is little point in widening the concept of knowledge construction only to limit the embodiment and dissemination techniques used or to force existing techniques onto new knowledge. Attempting to do so will lead to disappointing results, frustration and a contradict view to KM caused by the mismatch between conception and application. Knowledge usage must also be reflected via the knowledge initiatives installed in the organization.Demerest (1997) describes use (as deployed in figure no. 6) as the production of commercial value for the customer. While increasing commercial value is a key objective of KM, it is not the only objective. Therefore knowledge use must be employed through the application of a complementary approach for emancipatory enhancements and organization outputs. This will permit the organization to be viewed and reformed from different perspectives that will facilitate continuous innovation, thus creating the ultimate business benefits for the organization as a whole. While the interconnecting vectors (black arrows) show the primary flow of activity, more recursive arrows are added to reflect the circulating nature of activity flows, thus delineation that KM is not a simple sequential process.Figure No. 6-Modified Version of Demerests Knowledge Management Model (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999)Knowledge Management FrameworksStankosky and Baldanza (2001) developed a knowledge manag ement framework which addresses enabling factors such as learning, culture, leading, organization and technology (refer to figure no. 7). This framework presents that knowledge management covers a wide range of disciplines that include cognitive science, communication, individual and organizational behavior, psychology, finance, economics, human resource, management, strategic planning, system thinking, process reengineering, system engineering, computer technologies and software product and library science.This framework consists four major foundations of an organization which is important for knowledge management are leadership, organization structure, technology infrastructure and learning. The role of leadership is practicing strategic planning and systems thinking approaches, making best use of resources, encourage a culture that encourages open dialogue and team learning, and for encouraging and recognise risk taking, learning and knowledge sharing. Organization structure s hould facilitate personal interactions and support communities of practice to capture tacit and explicit knowledge within the organization. Besides, organizational structure should facilitate trust among people within the organization and encourage free exchange of knowledge. Technology infrastructure allows exchange of information without formal structures. Technology infrastructure should enhance the efficient and effective capture of both tacit and explicit knowledge. It should also support knowledge sharing in the entire organization. Lastly, learning is responsible for managing information in revise to build enterprise wide knowledge and use that knowledge to organizational learning, change and performance improvement.Figure No. 7-Basic Disciplines Underlying Knowledge Management and its Enabling Factors (Stankosky and Baldanza , 2001)Karadesh et al. (2009) developed a knowledge management framework that emphasizes on developing phases such as knowledge infrastructure, knowled ge combination, knowledge filtering, knowledge repository, knowledge sharing, knowledge application, and finally, knowledge performance across the KM process (refer to figure no. 8).The first element is knowledge infrastructure, which relies on make the proper culture for Knowledge Management System and establishes the awareness of the enormousness of KM among the individuals in the organization. The second element is knowledge combination that functions as a temporary repository of collected information from the infrastructure phase. The trey element is knowledge evaluation which is used to assess the knowledge base on the value accuracy and relevance after the knowledge have been combined from different sources (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). Knowledge filtering is the fourth element that prepares knowledge to be stored in the next phase, after going through classification, categorization and organization. The twenty percent element is knowledge repository that functions as stora ge for the knowledge collected in the past stages. It also can be viewed as organization memory and retention of knowledge assets. Knowledge sharing is a amount of money process in the process of the KM that transfers and shares knowledge among the individuals in the organization. Knowledge application is the seventh element that applies and represents information to knowledge seekers in remove matter. The last element is knowledge performance which is used to evaluate every KM system, process, performance, and impact of KM. It is performing according to the organization goals and objectives.Figure No. 8-Conceptual Framework for Knowledge Management Process(Karadesh et al., 2009)ConclusionThe review of existing knowledge management models and frameworks has seen a wide spectrum of viewpoints. Knowledge management has been seen from the flat view in which knowledge are categorized into discrete elements as seen in Boisot, Nonaka, and Nonaka and Hedlunds models to the more complicat ed and complex perspective of knowledge that is mechanistic and socially constructed orientation (McAdam and McCreedys, 1999). Moreover, these knowledge management models have made reference to first, the process of managing the flow knowledge second, categorization models are mechanistic third, the intellectual capital model assumed that intellectual capital are crucial assets in organization and should be manage efficiently for firms success fourth, Demerests model is intrinsically linked with the social and learning process within organizations McAdam and McCreedys model is slightly modified from Demerests model, which seeks to address the limitations by explicitly showing the influence of both social and scientific paradigms of knowledge construction, and extends the use element to cover both business and employee benefits. Stankosky and Baldanzas knowledge management framework emphasized that leadership, organization structure, technology infrastructure and learning are importa nt foundations for knowledge management in an organization finally, Karadesh et al.s knowledge management framework represents with extensive and comminuted processes and tends to provide guidelines for executing KM successfully, save time and efforts and to avoid inaccuracies. still though knowledge management models and frameworks have evolved from time to time, basically the models and frameworks provide a way of transforming managerial activities and guiding managerial efforts in managing knowledge in the organizations.The KM model and framework that are suggested to act as a useful guide for further research and organizational application is McAdam and McCreedys model and Karadesh et al.s framework. McAdam and McCreedys model combines scientific and socially constructed knowledge, and also the uses/benefits of KM are viewed as both emancipatory and as business oriented. Karadesh et al.s framework provides a broadest outline of KM process that can be used to foster the develo pment of organization knowledge and enhance the organizational impact of individuals throughout the organizations. Therefore, it is suggested that this model and framework could act as a useful guide for further research and literature evaluation in the area of knowledge management.